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Study of Body Function

razaelas — Sun, 10 Aug 2008 22:48:49 CDT

Chapter Objectives

After studying this chapter, students should be able to . . . 1. describe in a general way, the topics studied in physiology and the importance of physiology in modern medicine. 2. describe the characteristics of the scientific method. 3. define homeostasis and describe how this concept is used in physiology and medicine. 4. explain the nature of negative feedback loops and how these mechanisms act to maintain homeostasis. 5. explain how antagonistic effectors help to maintain homeostasis. 6. explain the nature of positive feedback loops and how these function in the body. 7. distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic regulation, and explain, in a general way, the roles of the nervous and endocrine systems in body regulation. 8. explain how negative feedback inhibition helps to regulate the secretion of hormones, using insulin as an example. 9. list the four primary tissues and their subtypes and describe the distinguishing features of each primary tissue. 10. relate the structure of each primary tissue to its functions. 11. describe how the primary tissues are grouped into organs, using the skin as an example. 12. describe the nature and significance of the extracellular and intracellular compartment of the body and explain the significance of this compartmentalization.
To those of you who are writing notes: feel free to use material from the on-line physiology book made by prior classes of Provo College students. Here is the link to the homeostasis chapter. You can copy/paste any of this material, as it is free of copyrights.

Introduction to Physiology

Here is a fun video introducing physiology

Cell Structure and Genetic Control Q&A

razaelas — Sun, 10 Aug 2008 22:43:18 CDT

Cell Structure and Genetic Control

1. This is the format of a review question (actually color doesn't make any difference)
a. on the notes page, do not show the correct answer
b. this will give students a chance to think about things
c. I would recommend writing the questions on the question page, then making a copy of them, removing the asterisks, and pasting them here
d. then students can go to the question page if they need to check the answer, and I can copy/paste from that page if I want to put the questions in my test bank.
*e. do all of the above, with good formatting, correct spelling, and factual questions and all will be well.

2. How many questions should our group write?
a. at least 3
b. at least 5
c. at least 20
*d. at least 10
e. it doesn't matter

3. A good question:
a. is always funny
b. has several ridiculous answers and only one that looks remotely feasible
c. can have misspelligns, as long as they are not the correct choice
d. should only test simple recall or definitions, and not get into analysis or deeper understanding of concepts
*e. none of the above

1. The ___________ is also known as the "cellular power plant".
a. ribosome
*b. mitochondria
c. golgi complex
d. nucleus
e. endoplasmic reticulum

2. Neurotransmitters are released from the ends of nerve cells are an example of what process?
a. phagocytosis
b. pinocytosis
c. endocytosis
*d. exocytosis
3. Cassy the red blood cell went to a physiwiki party and after chatting with the other cells at the party she realized she was out of place and extremely different. Cassy realized the other cells were all under control and that she was lacking a nucleus. This means that Cassy is what?
a. a eukaryote
b. a ribosome
*c. a prokaryote
d. a wileEcoyote

[Comment from Kevin: Clever question, but there is a misunderstanding I need to clear up. A red blood cell does indeed lack a nucleus, and "prokaryote" does indeed refer to cells without a nucleus. However, prokaryote/eukaryote is distinguishing between two major branches of life. The prokaryotes ONLY include the bacteria and archaea (which are also single-celled microbes). I say "only" but there are far more bacteria on the planet than eukaryotes. Anyway, even though a RBC lacks a nucleus, it is still a cell within a eukaryotic organism (a human) and is just an unusual eukaryotic cell. ] ps.. to clarify, this is a note from Kevin the teacher.. kevin the student had no idea about the difference until I read the young Kevin's comments..- ke

4. After floating around the cell for days the floating solid material was snatched up by the cell and taken inside. This is a process called?
a. excoytosis
b. pinocytosis
*c. phagocytosis
d. absorption

5. The cells proteins and lipids are planning to leave the cell. In order for a safe trip outside the cell they must be packaged properly, where do they need to go inside the cell to accomplish this?
*a. golgi apparatus
b. vacuoles
c. mitochondria
d. endoplasmic reticulum

6. How many different types of RNA are there?
a. 5
b. 6
c. 3
d. 2
*e. 4

7. The term genome can refer to:
a. all the genes in a particular individual
b. only one gene in an individual
c. all the genes in a particular species
*d. both a and c
e. none of the above

8. Which of the following is not a function of protein in the cell membrane?

a. structural support
*b. synthesis of DNA
c. enzymatic control of chemical reactions
d. receptors for hormones and other arriving regulatory molecules

9. Which of the following organic molecules is not commonly found in the cell membrane?

a. carbohydrates
b. protein
c. cholesterol
*d. nucleic acids

10. Which of the following molecules cannot pass through nuclear pores?

a. water
b. potassium ions
c. glycerol
*d. DNA

Enzymes & Energy Q&A

razaelas — Sun, 10 Aug 2008 22:41:58 CDT

Enzymes and Energy

1. The amount of energy required for a reaction to proceed is called?
a. enzymes
b.catalysts
*c. activation energy
d. cofactors

2. Thermodynamics obeys by which laws?
a. first and third branch
*b.first and second branch
c.second and third branch
d.none of the above

3. Which of the following forms does energy exist in?
*a. Mechanical, sound, light, electric, heat, chemical
b. Sound, mass, volume, Temperature
c. Light, mechanical, physical, heat, electric
d. Weight, volume, mass

4. Which Statement does not belong in the first Law of Thermodynamics?
a. Energy can change form.
b. During each conversion some energy is lost.
*c. Energy is in an ongoing organized motion.
d. Are ya crazy, all of these statements are correct.

5. Which kind of energy uses stored energy?
a. Kinetic Energy
*b. Potential Energy
c. Activation Energy
d. Endergonic Energy

6. What is a Catalyst?
*a. Enzyme that speeds up a reaction.
b. Protein that speeds up a reaction.
c. Enzyme that slows a reaction.
d. Protein that slows a reaction.

7. What kind of energy can be converted to Heat energy?
a. Mechanical
b. Sound
c. Light
d. Chemical
*e. All of the above

8. How do cells regulate enzymes?
a. By killing it
*b. By changing its shape
c. By producing different proteins
d. By oxidation

9. What are most enzymes?
a. carbohydrates
*b. proteins
c. products
d. none of these.

10. Which of these are the laws of thermodynamics?
a. energy can be transformed.
b. energy can be created and destroyed.
c. the amount of entropy increases in every energy transformation.
*d. a and c
e. none of these.

11. What are the 2 types of metabolism?
*a. anabolism
b. canabolism
*c. catabolism
d. animalism

Enzymes and Energy

razaelas — Sun, 10 Aug 2008 22:41:12 CDT

Chapter Objectives

After studying this chapter, students should be able to . . . 1. state the principles of catalysis and explain how enzymes function as catalysts. 2. explain how the names of enzymes are derived and comment on the significance of isoenzymes. 3. describe the effects of pH and temperature on the rate of enzyme-catalyzed reactions and explain how these effects are produced. 4. describe the roles of cofactors and coenzymes in enzymatic reactions. 5. explain how the law of mass action helps to account for the direction of reversible reactions. 6. explain how enzymes work together to produce a metabolic pathway and how this pathway may be affected by end-product inhibition and inborn errors of metabolism. 7. explain how the first and second laws of thermodynamics can be used to predict if metabolic reactions will be endergonic or exergonic. 8. describe how ATP is produced and explain its significance as the universal energy carrier. 9. define the terms oxidation, reduction, oxidizing agent, and reducing agent. 10. describe the use of NAD and FAD in oxidation-reduction reactions and explain the functional significance of these two molecules.

Enzymes as Catalysts

Enzymes are the biological catalysts that increase the rate of chemical reactions. Most enzymes are proteins, the vast differences in protein structures allow each different enzyme to be specialized in their action.

What is life? What is death? What is illness? What is health? What is youth? What is aging?
How do these questions apply to physiology?

We all could come up with some kind of an answer but, It all comes back to the cellular level. What is taking place in the cells?

Checklist of Enzyme Characteristics

-Enzymes are composed of protein and may require co-factor (metallic ion) or coenzyme (organic molecule, such as a vitamin).
-Enzymes act as organic catalysts to speed up the rate of cellular reactions.
-Enzymes lower the activation energy required for a chemical reaction to proceed.
-Enzymes have unique characteristics such as shape, specificity, and function.
-Enzymes enable metabolic reactions to proceed at a speed compatible with life.
-Enzymes provide a reactive site for target molecules called substrates.
-Enzymes are much larger in size than their substrates.
-Enzymes associate closely with substrates but do not become integrated into the reaction products.
-Enzymes are not used up or permanently changed by the reaction.
-Enzymes can be recycled, thus function in extremely low concentrations.
-Enzymes are limited by particular conditions of temperature and pH.
-Enzymes can be regulated by negative feedback and genetic mechanisms.

What is a Catalyst?

-A Catalyst is something that speeds up a reaction.
-It is NOT used up or destroyed during the reaction, so it can be reused again and again!
-It doesn't change the end result of the reaction, it only speeds it up!
-Functionally enzymes are biological catalysts!

-The same reaction would have occurred to the same degree in the absence of the catalyst, but it would have progressed at a much slower rate. In order for a given reaction to occur, the reactants must have sufficient energy. The amount of energy required for a reaction to proceed is called activation energy.

We use catalysts often in our daily lives to aid us with whatever it is we may be doing.

Some examples of active catalysts are:

A Wrench: As our wonderful teacher Kevin said, you could try to turn a bolt with your fingers, but it would be very difficult. If you use a wrench, you will be able to get that bolt off, much faster, and you would have to exert a lot less of your own energy!

Cars: You could walk to Provo from Salt Lake, it would take hours, maybe days, so you wouldn't do it. You would most likely take a car. You conserve your energy and get to Provo much faster! Your "wonderful teacher Kevin" used a bicycle as an example, and not a car. This was a conscious choice--why might I have thought the bicycle would be a better analogy for a catalyst than a car? (see if you can come up with a reason--I'll post my thoughts at the very bottom of this page)

The Laws of Thermodynamics: A set of universal laws governing all energy changes in the universe
1st Law-Energy cannot be created or destroyed, however it changes forms.

Mechanical, sound, light, electic, heat, chemical, etc...
All forms of energy can be converted to Heat. (When you convert one form of energy to another form you lose some of the energy to Heat energy)

2nd Law-Disorder is continuously increasing.

Entropy is a measure of the disorder of the system.

*It doesn't take energy to go to a state of disorder.

Simply put, the 2nd Law states: Entropy increases. If entropy happens spontaneously how do your cells maintain their level of order and complexity?
Answer:It takes energy!

Complexity requires energy.

Energy of Activation

- The energy required for a reaction to proceed.
- Catalysts lower the activation energy of a reaction and thus increases its rate.
- An enzyme can make a reaction happen about a million times faster! Like a switch!
- Enzymes cannot make an endergonic reaction exergonic.

Energy is defined as the ability to do work.

Here is an example of "Activation Energy":
In this video the match has its own stored energy known as potential energy. The activation energy here would be the laser pointer. We typically light matches with friction or another flame, but this is pretty cool! Check it out!

Types of energy:
Potential Energy: Stored Energy

It takes energy to release it.

Kinetic Energy: Energy in Motion

Activation Energy: The amount of action required for a reaction to proceed. Match analogy: Each match has potential energy, but will not release it until some activation energy has been supplied (either by friction or by heat of an already lit match)

Control of Enzyme Activity

Enzymes have the ability to lower the activation energy of a reaction as a result of their structure. They are large structures with 3-Dimensional shapes. Enzymes are proteins that serve as catalysts and help speed up reactions in cells.

What is a substrate?
A substrate is the reactant molecule within an enzyme. Each substrate has a specific shape that allows it to fit into the active site of the enzyme.

How enzymes work:
Enzymes are proteins that serve as catalysts
They speed up chemical reactions within cells
Enzymes bind a specific molecule and stress bonds to make a particular reaction more likely.

Active site
Sites on enzymes surface wherein reactant fits.

Binding site on reactant (substrate) where enzymes binds.

Enzyme shape determines it's activity/changes binding of the substrate.

Factors affecting enzyme activity
Enzyme activity is affected by any change in condition that alters the enzymes 3-D shape. The structural bonds of enzymes are sensitive to changes in temperature and pH.

How Cells Regulate Enzymes

A cell can control the activity of an enzyme by altering it's shape. Allosteric enzymes have shapes that can be altered, but the binding signal molecules.These molecules bind to the alloster site. Repressors bind and repress enzyme activity. Activators bind and restore or increase enzyme activity.

Enzyme inhibition occurs in two ways:
Competitive inhibition-Inhibitor binds at the enzyme's activity site
Non-competitive inhibition-inhibitor binds at the enzyme's alloster site

Constitutive enzymes- always present always produced in equal amounts or at equal rates regardless of amount of substrate, enzymes involved in glucose metabolism.

2 Types of Metabolism
Anabolism-biosynthesis building complex molecules from simple ones requires energy (in the form of ATP)

Anabolic=endergonic

Catabolic-degradation

Breaking down complex molecules into simpler ones, often used to generate ATP
Catabolic=exergonic

Synthesis or Condensation Reactions
Anabolic reactions to form covalent bonds between smaller substrate molecules. Requires ATP and releases one molecule of water for each bond. Removes -H from one side and -OH from the other to form H20 (a water molecule).

Hydrolysis Reaction
Catabolic reactions that break down substrates into small molecules, requires the input of water. Adds water to themolecule and splits it into two smaller molecules.

Metabolic Pathways can be linear, branched (divergent or convergent), or cyclic. Many enzymes are present, each one makes a product that becomes a reactant, that is the reactant for the next protein, A to B to C to D etc.

Bioenergetics

Living organisms require the constant expenditure of energy to maintain their complex structures and processes. Central to life processes are chemical reactions that are coupled, so that the energy released by one reactions incorporated into the products of another reaction. The transformation of energy in living systems is largely based on reactions that produce and destroy molecules of ATP and oxidation-reduction reactions.

Bioenergtics refers to the flow of energy in living systems. Organisms maintain their highly ordered structure and life-sustaining activities through the constant expenditure of energy obtained from their environment.The energy flow in living systems obeys the first and second laws of the physics, which is thermodynamics.

Redox Reaction
This is a simultaneous oxidation-reduction process whereby cellular metabolism occurs, such as the oxidation of sugar in the human body, through a series of very complex electron transfer processes.
The chemical way to look at redox processes is that the substance being oxidized transfers electrons to the substance being reduced. Thus, in the reaction, the substance being oxidized (aka. the reducing agent) loses electrons, while the substance being reduced (aka. the oxidizing agent) gains electrons. Remember: LEO (Losing Electrons is Oxidation) the lion says GER (Gaining Electrons is Reduction).
The term redox state is often used to describe the balance of NAD+/NADH and NADP+/NADPH in a biological system such as a cell or organ. The redox state is reflected in the balance of several sets of metabolites (e.g., lactate and pyruvate, beta-hydroxybutyrate and acetoacetate) whose interconversion is dependent on these ratios. An abnormal redox state can develop in a variety of deleterious situations, such as hypoxia, shock, and sepsis.

Review Questions

1. The amount of energy required for a reaction to proceed is called?
a. enzymes
b. catalysts
c. activation energy
d. cofactors

2. Thermodynamics obeys by which laws?
a. first and third branch
b. first and second branch
c. second and third branch
d. none of the above

3. Which of the following forms does energy exist in?
a. Mechanical, sound, light, electric, heat, chemical
b. Sound, mass, volume, Temperature
c. Light, mechanical, physical, heat, electric
d. Weight, volume, mass

4. Which Statement does not belong in the first Law of Thermodynamics?
a. Energy can change form.
b. During each conversion some energy is lost.
c. Energy is in an ongoing organized motion.
d. Are ya crazy, all of these statements are correct.

5. Which kind of energy uses stored energy?
a. Kinetic Energy
b. Potential Energy
c. Activation Energy
d. Endergonic Energy

6. What is a Catalysts?
a. Enzyme that speeds up a reaction.
b. Protein that speeds up a reaction.
c. Enzyme that slows a reaction.
d. Protein that slows a reaction.

7. What kind of energy can be converted to Heat energy?
a. Mechanical
b. Sound
c. Light
d. Chemical
e. All of the above

8. How do cells regulate enzymes?
a. By killing it
b. By changing its shape
c. By producing different proteins
d. By oxidation

9. What are most enzymes?
a. carbohydrates
b. proteins
c. products
d. none of these.

10. Which of these are the laws of thermodynamics?
a. energy can be transformed.
b. energy can be created and destroyed.
c. the amount of entropy increases in every energy transformation.
d. a and c
e. none of these.

11. What are the 2 types of metabolism?
a. anabolism
b. canabalism
c. catabolism
d. animalism

12. What kind of energy do cells use?
a. chemical
b. heat
c. sound
d. physical

Answer to why I used a bicycle as an example of a catalyst instead of a car: Both bikes and cars speed up the travel, but I didn't use a car because the car itself does work (expends energy), while the bicycle just makes the person's work easier. An enzyme does not do the work itself, but just makes the job easier. No analogy is perfect, but that is why I thought the bike was a closer analogy to an enzyme than a car. ~K

Cell Structure and Genetic Control

razaelas — Sun, 10 Aug 2008 22:39:45 CDT

Units Within the Metric System

The metric system is the most widely used system of measurement in the world. It is a more universal measurement standard as compared to the customary system used in the United States.
The three basic units of the metric system are the meter, gram, and liter:

The gram measures weight.The meter measures length.The liter measures capacity.

thousands	hundreds	tens	basic unit	tenths	hundredths	thousandths
1000	100	10	1	0.1	0.01	0.001
kilo-	hecto-	deca-	Meter Gram Liter	deci-	centi-	milli-

A millimeter is about how thick a dime is.
A centimeter is how wide one of your fingernails is.
A kilometer is a little more than half of a mile.

From smallest to greatest they range:

Milli-

Centi-

Deci-

Meter Gram
Liter

Deca-

Hecto-

Kilo-

Conversion Chart for Measuring Length
1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters (m)
1 meter = 100 centimeters (cm) = 1000 millimeters (mm)1 millimeter = 1000 micrometers (um) Cells are measured in micrometers
1 micrometer = 1000 nanometers (nm) Ribosomes and molecules are measured in nanometers

This system is based on the decimal system and base units of 10s. There are two ways to convert measurements:
All the measurements can either be multiplied or divided by 10, 100, 1,000, and so on. You can follow these short 3 steps if you are not sure what to do.
1. Count the number of zeros in the number you are multiplying or dividing by.
2. If you are multiplying, move the decimal point this number of places to the right.
3. If you are dividing, move the decimal point this number of place to the left.

Drill and Practice

Write the equivalents.

1) 18 m =___ cm
2) 167 mm =_mm
3) 500 kg = _g
4) 23 dm =_hm
5) 1,589 dl =_dm
6) 700 ml =_kl
7) 5 cm = ___mm

ATour of the Cell

The picture above is the basic structure of a cell. The nucleus of the cell is the control center. It is also were the DNA is housed in 23 pairs of chromosomes. This DNA contains all the information for the synthesis of the entire organism.Within these chromosomes there are about 25,000 genes, which code for more than 100,000 proteins. The DNA can't leave the nucleus so, in a process called transcription, segments of DNA are copied as mRNA( messenger RNA), which leaves the nucleus through nuclear pores.
After the mRNA leaves the nucleus,ribosomes attach to it and translate the sequence of nucleic acids into a sequence of amino acids (a polypeptide, orprotein). Ribosomes are about 20 nm in size and are made up of 65% ribosomal RNA (which was made in the nucleolous, a dark region of the nucleus) and 35% ribosomal protein. A ribosome has two sub units a large sub unit and a small sub unit (both units are shown in the figure below).
These subunits come together at the start codon (AUG) of mRNA. Ribosomes may be free-floating, or may be embedded in the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of tubular canals within the cytoplasm. Proteins are produced by ribosomes on the surface of the rough ER and released into the lumen (interior space) of the rough ER. These proteins are then transported to an ER which lacks surface ribosomes (smooth ER). A small vesicle then pinches off from the smooth ER (with proteins inside) and moves through the cytoplasm to the Golgi apparatus for further processing.
The Golgi looks like a “stack of pancakes” and contains enzymes that modify proteins ("post-translational modifications") and prepares them for transport to their final destination, either inside or outside the cell. The Golgi receives proteins and enzymes from the endoplasmic reticulum and packages them into membrane-bound vesicles. Often these vesicles move to the cell membrane and release their contents to the outside of the cell (exocytosis).
The Golgi also prepares lysosomes, which are "bags" of enzymes.The lysosomes assist in the digestion of ingested cellular materials and in the breakdown of worn-out cell organelles. Certain human white blood cells (WBC’s) have numerous lysosomes so they can efficiently destroy ingested bacteria that they have engulfed (through phagocytosis). Cells also have a cytoskeleton, which is made from filamentous proteins called “actin filaments” and “microtubules.”These filaments and tubules assist in the movement of organelles within the cells, the movement of the cell itself, and act to maintain the cell’s shape. Some cells have cilia, which are used to move materials past the cell. A good example is the cells lining the respiratory tract, which have cilia to beat mucus and dust up and out the trachea. Only one human cell type, sperm, has a flagellum, which is a long whip-like structure used for propulsion of cells.

Mitochondria (Power House)
The mitochondria are organelles that make energy for the cell in the form of ATP. All cells need a continuous supply of ATP, and it is in the mitochondria that this molecule is produced. The energy to make ATP comes from the food we eat, so ultimately this is why we eat. Oxygen is the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain, which is happening in the inner membrane of the mitochondria, so ultimately this is why we breathe.

The mitochondria is sometimes referred to as the cellular power plant. It has it's own DNA and regenerates on it's own, much like the cell that it's found in. A cell CAN NOT make mitochondria.

CBS News published this interesting article on the role of mitochondrial DNA in aging. By inducing a high rate of mutation in mitochondrial DNA, researchers made mice age prematurely, suggesting that degradation of mitochondrial DNA may be one of the causes of aging (not just a result of aging). [Note: Kevin removed the article and replaced it with the link and this summary paragraph to avoid copyright violations]

Here is a simple way to remember the "power" of Mitochondria ...with some killer background music!!! http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ceDopmx1Y2g

Structure of a cell membrane
A barrier must be present to prevent the loss of enzymes, nucleotides, and other cellular molecules that are water-soluble. This is because both inside and outside the cell contains water. So the cell membrane is composed of lipids. It is considered semipermeable because it is permeable to water, gas molecules, and lipid-soluble molecules, but impermeable to most other molecules.

Phospholipids

Phospholipids create most of the cell membrane. A phospholipid is both hydrophilic (the polar part which contains the phosphate group) and hydrophobic (the nonpolar part that contains the lipid (fat) group). The hydrophobic parts are attracted to each other so they form together making this a double layer of phospholipid. Hence, the lipid tails are pointing in towards each other while the phosphate heads are pointing out. The membrane is not solid--it has an oily consistency, and embedded proteins float in it like icebergs in the ocean. The plasma membrane is sometimes called the fluid mosaic model--fluid because it is not solid and things can move about in it, and mosaic because it is composed of many small pieces. The way of passage into or out of the cell mainly is due to the transport proteins embedded into the cell membrane.
***If something can dissolve in fat (lipid soluble) it can dissolve through the cell membrane. An example is steroid hormones, which are derived from cholesterol (a fat). Lipid insoluble products need to go through a channel protein to pass through the membrane.

Proteins in the cell membrane

The proteins can move around the cell membrane freely and transport materials in and out of the cell. Not all proteins are transport proteins--many are enzymes, and many are cell receptors. The proteins are not uniformally placed throughout the membrane--rather the distribution is patchy, localized depending on their function. Remember that receptor proteins only respond to certain chemicals. This is important because proteins serve as receptors for neurotransmitter chemicals released by nerve fibers at the synapse, for hormones, and for chemical messengers sent from one cell to another.

Carbohydrates

The carbohydrates of the plasma membrane are mainly attached to the outer surface as glycoproteins and glycolipids. The glycolipids of red blood cells serve to determine the blood type. A major group of identification proteins is made by the expression of the MHC (major histocompatability) gene complex. When they are searching for a "matching donor" for an organ or tissue transplant, they are looking for people who have similar MHC genes (hence, similar cell-surface markers).We are lucky that our red blood cells do not express MHC genes or blood donations would be as complex as donating a kidney. The carbohydrates affect interactions between cells and help keep red blood cells apart.

Cholesterol

Cholesterol mainly just stabilizes the cell membrane and is embedded inside the phospholipid.

Genetic Control
For those of you who may be really blown away by our discussion on genetics, here is a great tutorial from the U of U. It includes a tour of the cell, the basic concepts behind genetics, and how to transcribe and translate a gene.

Transcription is the process through which a DNA sequence is enzymatically copied by an RNA polymerase to produce a complementary RNA. So to say, it is the transfer of genetic information from DNA into RNA. In the case of protein-encoding DNA, transcription is the beginning of the process that ultimately leads to the translation of the genetic code (via the mRNA intermediate) into a functional peptide or protein. The stretch of DNA that is transcribed into an RNA molecule is called a transcription unit. Transcription has some proofreading mechanisms, but they are fewer and less effective than the controls for copying DNA; therefore, transcription has a lower copying fidelity than DNA replication.[1] As in DNA replication, transcription proceeds in the 5' → 3' direction (i.e. the old polymer is read in the 3' → 5' direction and the new, complementary fragments are generated in the 5' → 3' direction). In the case of transcription, the "old polymer" is the DNA template (non-coding) strand. RNA polymerase binds to the 3' end of a gene on the DNA template strand and travels toward the 5' end. In the process, the RNA polymerase synthesizes an RNA molecule from its 5' end to the 3' end. Except for the fact that thymines in DNA are converted to uracils in RNA, the newly synthesized RNA strand will have the same sequence as the coding (non-template) strand of the DNA. For this reason, scientists usually refer to the DNA coding strand when referring to the directionality of genes on DNA, not the template strand. Thus, genes are said to be transcribed in the 5' → 3' direction.

Here is a graphical representation of Transcription
http://www.johnkyrk.com/DNAtranscription.html

Translation is the second process of protein biosynthesis (part of the overall process of gene expression). Translation occurs in the cytoplasm where the ribosomes are located. Ribosomes are made of a small and large subunit which surrounds the mRNA. In translation, messenger RNA (mRNA) is decoded to produce a specific polypeptide according to the rules specified by the genetic code. This is the process that converts an mRNA sequence into a chain of amino acids that form a protein. Translation is necessarily preceded by transcription. Translation proceeds in four phases: activation, initiation, elongation and termination (all describing the growth of the amino acid chain, or polypeptide that is the product of translation). In activation, the correct amino acid (AA) is joined to the correct transfer RNA (tRNA). While this is not technically a step in translation, it is required for translation to proceed. The AA is joined by its carboxyl group to the 3' OH of the tRNA by an ester bond. When the tRNA has an amino acid linked to it, it is termed "charged". Initiation involves the small subunit of the ribosome binding to 5' end of mRNA with the help of initiation factors (IF), other proteins that assist the process. Elongation occurs when the next aminoacyl-tRNA (charged tRNA) in line binds to the ribosome along with GTP and an elongation factor. Termination of the polypeptide happens when the A site of the ribosome faces a stop codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA). When this happens, no tRNA can recognize it, but releasing factor can recognize nonsense codons and causes the release of the polypeptide chain. The capacity of disabling or inhibiting translation in protein biosynthesis is used by antibiotics such as: anisomycin, cycloheximide, chloramphenicol, tetracycline, streptomycin, erythromycin, puromycin etc.

Review Questions

1. The ___________ is also known as the "cellular power plant".
a. ribosome
b. mitochondria
c. golgi complex
d. nucleus
e. endoplasmic reticulum

2. Neurotransmitters are released from the ends of nerve cells are an example of what process?

a. phagocytosis
b. pinocytosis
c. endocytosis
d. exocytosis

3. Cassy the red blood cell went to a physiwiki party and after chatting with the other cells at the party she realized she was out of place and extremely different. Cassy realized the other cells were all under control and that she was lacking a nucleus. This means that Cassy is what?
a. a eukaryote
b. a ribosome
c. a prokaryote
d. a wileEcoyote
[Please see Kevin's comment on this question on the page with answers]

4. After floating around the cell for days the floating solid material was snatched up by the cell and taken inside. This is a process called?
a. excoytosis
b. pinocytosis
c. phagocytosis
d. absorption

5. The cells proteins and lipids are planning to leave the cell. In order for a safe trip outside the cell they must be packaged properly, where do they need to go inside the cell to accomplish this?
a. golgi apparatus
b. vacuoles
c. mitochondria
d. endoplasmic reticulum

6. How many different types of RNA are there?
a. 5
b. 6
c. 3
d. 2
e. 4

7. The term genome can refer to:
a. all the genes in a particular individual
b. only one gene in an individual
c. all the genes in a particular species
d. both a and c
e. none of the above

8. Which of the following is not a function of protein in the cell membrane?
a. structural support
b. synthesis of DNA
c. enzymatic control of chemical reactions
d. receptors for hormones and other arriving regulatory molecules

9. Which of the following organic molecules is not commonly found in the cell membrane?
a. carbohydrates
b. protein
c. cholesterol
d. nucleic acids

10. Which of the following molecules cannot pass through nuclear pores?
a. water
b. potassium ions
c. glycerol
d. DNA

Test 1 Chapters

razaelas — Sun, 10 Aug 2008 22:36:59 CDT

Chapter 1-The Study of Body Function
Chapter 3-Cell Structure and Genetic Control
Chapter 4-Enzymes and Energy

Study of Body Funcitons Q&A

razaelas — Sun, 10 Aug 2008 22:32:59 CDT

The Study of Body Function

1. This is the format of a review question
a. on this page, do not show the correct answer
b. this will give students a chance to think about things
c. I would recommend writing the questions on the question page, then making a copy of them, removing the asterisks, and pasting them here
d. then students can go to the question page if they need to check the answer, and I can copy/paste from that page if I want to put the questions in my test bank.
*e. do all of the above, with good formatting, correct spelling, and factual questions and all will be well.

2. How many questions should our group write?
a. at least 3
b. at least 5
c. at least 20
*d. at least 10
e. it doesn't matter

1. What does a single celled protozoan need?
a. energy
b. building blocks
c. ATP
d. minerals
*e. all of the above

2. The cell expends a lot of energy to maintain a charge across its membrane, it does this by actively:
a. pumping potassium out
b. pumping sodium in
*c. pumping potassium in and sodium out
d. a and b only
e. none of the above

3. The body is _______% fluid.
a. 52
b.89
*c.56
d.10

4. Fluid inside the cell is called?
a.blood
b.cytoplasm
c.urea
*d.intracellular fluid

5._______ are organized into different functional structures and are highly dependent upon each other.
a. atoms
b. DNA strands
*c. cells
d. dendrites

6. How many cells are in the human body?
a. 600 thousand
b. One million
c. Six billion
*d. 100 trillion

7. What is interstitial fluid similar to?
*a. plasma
b. blood
c. water
d. saliva

8. Adult stem cells can be found in all of the following locations, except:
a. bulge of hair follicle
b. brain
*c. lungs
d. intestine
e. bone marrow

9. Which of the following cells has no nucleus?
*a. red blood cell
b. osteoblast
c. osteocyte
d. white blood cell

10. Which of the following is false about extracellular fluids?
a. it contains glucose
b. it contains amino acids and fatty acids
*c. it has larger amounts of potassium than interstitial fluid
d. it contains CO2

11. Homeostasis is like cruise control, it must have:
a. a mean for adjustment
b. a set point
c. detectors to realize it needs adjustment
*d. all of the above
e. none of the above

12. I went into the bookstore and noticed that I was going to have to fork out
nearly $200 dollars for my new physiology text book. Desperate for money I
was forced to donate some plasma, A LOT of plasma in order to get my new book.
This plasma is a subdivision of which major compartment?
a. intracellular compartment
b. epidermal compartment
c. median-basilic compartment
*d. extracellular compartment

13. I was walking in the jungle on a wild safari and as I was admiring a spider
monkey swinging from branch to branch I found my self falling into a huge
pit of quicksand. As I was sinking I was thinking about my death and
realized, like many deaths I would die because:
*a. my cells need oxygen to survive
b. my cells cant get the proper nutrition from sand
c. insufficient levels of ATP
d. your cells wont die until your heart stops

14.Sweating and shivering are an example of what?
a. positive feedback
*b. negative feedback
c. hormonal imbalance
d. aging

15. For the Halo 3 debut the news showed footage of people rushing into the store to get their copy. They focused in on a guy that was pacing back and forth dripping in sweat anxious to get his copy(I think it was Chad Morgan). Sweat is secreted by exocrine glands. This means his sweat:
*a. is produced by epithelial cells
b. is a hormone
c. is secreted into a duct
d.is produced outside the body

16. Glands are derived from
a. nervous tissue
b. connective tissue
c. muscular tissue
*d. epithelial tissue

17. The most imediate need for a cell is?
a. glucose
*b. gas exchange
c. protein
d. fatty acids

Physiology in the News

flattail — Sun, 10 Aug 2008 01:38:46 CDT

This is the place to share cool articles and videos that relate to physiology. Please post links to the original articles or, if it is a video, embed it on the page. We will organize by system if we get enough articles, but for now just list them.

Skin cells reveal a person's internal clockwork (Science Now Daily News)
Can We Cure Aging? (Discover Magazine)
Can Vitamin D Save Your Life (Discover Magazine)
Of Coma and Consciousness (Discover Magazine)
Leaky calcium-ion channels may be cause of muscle fatigue (Science Now Daily News)
How Much Do Chemicals Affect Our Health? (Discover Magazine)
New lines of stem cells changing how various diseases are studied (Science Now Daily News)

Chapter 7

flattail — Fri, 18 Jul 2008 14:10:59 CDT

Nervous System

Chapter Objectives

After studying this chapter, students should be able to . . . 1. describe the structure of a neuron and explain the functional significance of its principal regions. 2. classify neurons on the basis of their structure and function. 3. describe the locations and functions of the different types of supporting cells. 4. explain what is meant by the blood-brain barrier and discuss its significance. 5. describe the sheath of Schwann and explain how it functions in the regeneration of cut peripheral nerve fibers. 6. explain how a myelin sheath is formed. 7. define depolarization, repolarization, and hyperpolarization. 8. explain the actions of voltage-regulated Na+ and K+ channels and describe the events that occur during the production of an action potential. 9. describe the properties of action potentials and explain the significance of the all-or-none law and the refractory periods. 10. explain how action potentials are regenerated along a myelinated and a nonmyelinated axon. 11. describe the events that occur in the interval between the electrical excitation of an axon and the release of neurotransmitter. 12. describe the two general categories of chemically regulated ion channels, and explain how these operate using nicotinic and muscarinic ACh receptors as examples. 13. explain how ACh produces EPSPs and IPSPs, and indicate the significance of these processes. 14. compare the characteristics of EPSPs and action potentials. 15. compare the mechanisms that inactivate ACh with those that inactivate monoamine neurotransmitters. 16. explain the role of cyclic AMP in the action of monoamine neurotransmitters, and some of the actions of monoamines in the nervous system. 17. explain the significance of the inhibitory effects of glycine and GABA in the central nervous system. 18. list some of the polypeptide neurotransmitters, and explain the significance of the endogenous opioids in the nervous system. 19. discuss the significance of nitric oxide as a neurotransmitter. 20. explain how EPSPs and IPSPs can interact and discuss the significance of spatial and temporal summation and of presynaptic and postsynaptic inhibition. 21. describe the nature of long-term potentiation and discuss its significance.

The Nervous System: Neurons and Synapses

Chapter 10: Sense

flattail — Fri, 18 Jul 2008 13:41:14 CDT

Sensory Physiology

Chapter Objectives

After studying this chapter, students should be able to . . . 1. explain how sensory receptors are categorized, give examples of functional categories and explain how tonic and phasic receptors differ. 2. explain the law of specific nerve energies. 3. describe the characteristics of the generator potential. 4. give examples of different types of cutaneous receptors and describe the neural pathways for the cutaneous senses. 5. explain the concepts of receptive fields and lateral inhibition. 6. describe the distribution of taste receptors on the tongue and explain how salty, sour, sweet and bitter tastes are produced. 7. describe the structure and function of the olfactory receptors, and explain how odor discrimination might be accomplished. 8. describe the structure of the vestibular apparatus and explain how it provides information about acceleration of the body in different directions. 9. describe the functions of the outer and middle ear. 10. describe the structure of the cochlea and explain how movements of the stapes against the oval window result in vibrations of the basilar membrane. 11. explain how mechanical energy is converted into nerve impulses by the organ of Corti and how pitch perception is accomplished. 12. describe the structure of the eye, and how images are brought to a focus on the retina. 13. explain how visual accommodation is achieved and describe the defects associated with myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism. 14. describe the architecture of the retina, and trace the pathways of light and nerve activity through the retina. 15. describe the function of rhodopsin in the rods and explain dark adaptation is achieved. 16. explain how light affects the electrical activity of rods and their synaptic input to bipolar cells. 17. explain the trichromatic theory of color vision. 18. compare rods and cones with respect to their locations, synaptic connections, and functions. 19. describe the neural pathways from the retina, explaining the differences in pathways from different regions of the visual field. 20. describe the receptive fields of ganglion cells and state the stimulus requirements for simple, complex, and hypercomplex cortical neurons.

What are senses?

Sight, Smell, Hear, Taste & Touch
Sensation: Feeling or awareness of a bodily state or condition.
Perception: Creations of the brain; our ability to see, hear, tastes and smell.

Basic Info
-Sense organs are extensions of the nervous system
-Our awareness of the world and its contents through sensory experience
-There are more than the five "basic" senses: e.g., touch has many receptors for light, depth, etc.
-Receptors for the different senses go to different areas of the brain.

WE DON'T ALWAYS CORRECTLY PERCEIVE WHAT WE SENSE!!!
Reality is what we perceive, but what we perceive is not always reality!
-In order to "feel" a sense, you need:
*A Stimulus
*A Receptor
*A Conduction to the brain (carried all the way through)
*An interpretation of the impulse

Sensory Receptors

Can be Exteroceptic (Perceiving sense from OUTSIDE the body) or Interoceptor(Perceiving sense from WITHIN the body, though not usually consciously).

Functional Categorizations
- Nocioceptors for PAIN
  - Sparse or absent in viscera and brain
  - Plays a protective role
  - Continuously relays impulses to the brain
  - Skin grafts have no pain receptors
- Photoreceptors for SIGHT
- Chemoreceptors for CHEMICALS
  - Taste, Smell
  - Detect changes in environment
  - Olfaction
    - aka Smell, these receptors are not highly developed in humans.
    - Functions closely with gustation (taste)
  - Gustation
    - aka Taste
    - Functions closely with olfaction (smell)
- Proprieceptors for BODY AWARENESS
  - Gives information on body position, joint stretch, etc.
  - Proprieceptors are developed further in the practicing of sports, typing, playing instruments, etc.
- Mechanoreceptors for MECHANICAL STIMULI
  - Touch, Hearing, Equilibrium
- Thermoreceptors for TEMPERATURE
  - Receptors for cold are more abundant than those for heat, and are located closer to the surface of skin
  - Brain actually perceives spiciness from capscaicin as actually being hot. Pain receptors in the mouth make you feel pain from this "heat" as well. The receptor is found in free nerve endings in the nerves, which binds to the capscaicin.
  - Brain also perceives menthol as being "cold". The same thing happens as with capscaicin.
- Baroreceptors for BLOOD PRESSURE
  - Remember the karate chop from anatomy?!
  Tonic vs. Phasic Receptors

- Tonic Receptors ("Slow Adapting")
  - The neuron continues to fire until the stimulus is removed
  - Example: You poke yourself with a needle. It will hurt until it is removed.
  - Tonic receptors are constantly on
- Phasic Receptors ("Fast Acting")
  - Fire only when stimulus first is perceived or removed
  - Example: Putting your clothes on; you are only aware of them for a short period of time.
  - Phasic receptors are usually "off" until a stimulus turns them "on".
    - Example: You are not aware of the temperature until it becomes hot or cold.
- Action Potentials
  - More stimulus = More frequent action potential= Perception of larger stimulus
  - The amplitude (depolarization) of the action potential DOES NOT change

Types of Cutaneous Receptors - These vary in density depending on location
- Free Nerve Endings - TONIC
  - Widely distributed
  - Non-specialized, can perceive touch, temperature, pain, etc.
  - Not all identical
  - Quite abundant
- Merkel's Discs and Ruffini Endings - TONIC
- Meissner's Corpuscle - PHASIC
  - Responds to light touch
  - Resides in dermal papillae, just beneath epidermis
  - Actual nerve ending embedded in other cells
  - Mechanoreceptor
  - Concentrated in areas sensitive to touch
  - Action potentials are generated based on actual physical change (i.e, a person's hand bends the Meissner's Corpuscles in your hand, so the action potential is generated and you can perceive it.)
- Pascinian Corpuscle - PHASIC
  - Responds to deep touch
  - Resides in hypodermis
  - Mechanoreceptor

Referred Pain
-The impulses travel along the same pathway toward the brain, where they synapse with the same interneuron. This confuses the brain into thinking it is receiving sensory information from, say, the left arm, when it is really coming from the heart.

Phantom Pain
-May be experienced by amputees, when part of their nerve has been severed. The nerve can still transmit impulses, confusing the brain into "feeling" pain or sensation in a limb that is not actually present. 70 % of amputees suffer from phantom pain.

Two-Point Touch Threshold
-The minimal distance at which you are unable to discern two separate stimuli as such. Decreases where the skin is most sensitive, where the density of receptors is closest.

The Individual Senses

Olfaction -Receptors not highly developed in humans
Functions closely with gustation (taste)
- Receptor cells are located in the nasal epithelium
  - Roof of nasal cavity
  - The cell bodies are bipolar
  - The dendritic endings of the cells have olfactory hairs
  - The cells respond to airborne molecules
- Pathway of Olfaction
  - Nasal cavity --> Olfactory hairs --> Olfactory receptor cells --> Through cribriform plate of ethmoid bone --> Olfactory nerve fibers

(Above Picture is of the cribiform plate of the ethmoid bone showing the Olfactory nerve leading to the brain.)

Hardwired right into the brain---primal sense.

2nd messenger systems-Look at Figure 10-11 on page 269 cyclic AMP
The 2nd messenger opens ion channels it isn’t restricted to the nervous system. You must activate 2nd messenger…there can be many (up to 50) g-proteins. They will greatly amplify a signal. Sets off a chain reaction.
Pathway for Olfactory Sensation Olfactory nerve fibers, cribiform plate of ethmoid bone. Olfactory receptor cells. Supporting columnar epithelial cells Olfactory hairs.

Taste (Gustation)-salt and sour are directly letting Na+ (salt) or H+ (sour)ions in. The same cell type that is letting the Na+ or H+ in. (Using Lime and salt after tequila) Can make taste sensations less intense. Depolarizes and neurotransmitter is released at it’s dendrite.
Sweet receptors- (binds to membrane receptor, second messenger)
Sour receptors- (H+ through ion channel)
Salty receptors- (Na+ through ion channel)
Bitter receptors-evoked by quinine (Binds to membrane receptor, second messenger)
Glutamate (meaty savory flavor) receptors-
Fat receptors-yummy

Taste hair, taste bud, Gustatory (taste)cell, supporting cell, sensory nerve fiber are the anatomy involved in taste.
Pathway involves 2 nerves Facial and Glossopharyngeal nerves
Olfaction-cAMP is the 2ndary messenger that amplifies smell.

Hearing Equilibrium and Hearing-vibrations in the ear. Waves of pressure traveling through the ear, funneled into the ear through the bones and the Eustachian tube to the cochlear and sound is interpreted through the cochlea. The sense of equilibrium has to do with the semi-circular canals.

Different frequencies are interpreted in different parts of the cochlea. In the vestibule and Utricle and assoc. with gravity and linear motion up and down, forward and backward are picked up within the vestibule.
Circular movement is picked up in the semi-circular canals. They will pick up different types of circular motion. Horizontal, etc.

Mechanical receptors have hairs that get pushed one way or another that causes depolarization of the membrane which causes the action/receptor potential. The waves of the motion bends the cells and causes depolarization. Sound waves in the internal acoustic canal go to the tympanic membrane with vibration to cochlea.

Cupula-hair cells will get bent there is neural processing for equilibrium. Ampullae of the Inner Ear- as you twist and spin it catches up with your body. Then the perception is that you are still spinning. Vestibular nystagmus. And then stop them and hold their head after they spin and spin and spin. P.273

Vision
The Eye-Rods and Cones. The Rods are more sensitive to light than the Cones.
Color vision-cones respond to different colors. Some people are color blind. Different degrees of color-blindness. Short, medium and long wavelength. Blue cones, short wavelength. Medium perceive green. And long are for perception of the color red.

Each rod contains thousands of molecules of a purple pigment known as rhodopsin in these discs. The pigment appears purple because it transmits light in the red and blue regions of the spectrum, while absorbing light energy in the green region. Green cars (and other green objects) are seen more easily at night - when rods are used for vision - than are red objects. This is because red light is not absorbed well by rhodopsin, and only absorbed light can produce the photochemical reaction that results in vision. In response to absorbed light, rhodopsin dissociates into its two components: the pigment retinaldehyde which is derived from vitamin A, and a protein called opsin. this reaction is known as the bleaching reaction.

Dark Adaptation

The bleaching reaction that occurs in the light results in a lowered amount of rhodopsin in the rods and lowered amounts of visual pigments in the cones. When a light-adapted person first enters a darkened room, therefore, sensitivity to light is low and vision is poor. A gradual increase in photoreceptor sensitivity, known as dark adaption then occurs, reaching maximal sensitivity in about 20 minutes. The increased sensitivity to low light intensity is partly due to increased amounts of visual pigments produced in the dark. Increased pigments in the cones produce a slight dark adaptation in the first 5 minutes. Increased rhodopsin in the rods produces a much greater increase in sensitivity to low light levels and is partly responsible for the adaptation that occurs after about 5 minutes in the dark. In addition to the increased concentration of rhodopsin, other more subtle changes occur in the rods that ultimately result in a 100,000-fold increase in light sensitivity in dark adapted as compared to light adapted eyes.

Rod produces rhodopsin. Transmits light so that people are able to see in the dark. Red light is not absorbed well in the dark. You can use red light to see in the dark. Night vision is getting used to the dark.

Vitamin A is important in night vision. You can see 100,000 x’s better after you’ve been in the dark for over a half an hour than if you are just placed in the dark setting.
Cones are concentrated in the phobia centralis. They help you to be able to focus.

Floaters: Also known as "Muscae Volitantes" are deposits of various size, shape, consistency, refractive index, and motility within the eye's normally transparent vitreous humour. Floaters are suspended in the vitreous humour, the thick fluid or gel that fills the eye. Thus, they generally follow the rapid motions of the eye, while drifting slowly within the fluid. Floaters are visible only because they do not remain perfectly fixed within the eye. The shapes are shadows projected onto the retina by tiny structures of protein or other cell debris discarded over the years and trapped in the vitreous humour. They are also common after cataract operations or after trauma. In some cases, floaters are congenital. (Just thought this was interesting, because I wondered what those little things were myself!)

CHECK OUT THIS VIDEO!!
http://www.metacafe.com/watch/576490/amazing_story/

QUESTIONS

Note on formatting: Everyone has been very good about formatting questions, except for one minor thing (minor, except that I have to fix it for my test bank): make sure there is a spaceor two (but never a tab) between the period after a number or letter and the text. So "a.first answer" is incorrect while "a. first answer" is correct. Thanks! ~K

1. Tonic receptors:
a. are fast-adapting
b. do not fire continuously to a sustained stimulus.
c. produce action potentials at a greater frequency as the generator potential is increased.
d. are described by all of these.

2. Receptors for vision are located in which part of the eye?
a. cornea
b. lens
c. iris
d. retina

3. The receptors for taste are ________.

a. naked sensory nerve endings.
b. encapsulated sensory nerve endings.
c. neurons.
d. specialized epithelial cells.

4. Cutaneous receptive fields are smallest in ____________.

a. the fingertips.
b. the back.
c. the thigh.
d. the arms.
e. b and c

5. What is Olfaction?
a. taste
b. hearing
c. smell
d. touch

6. The loss of equilibrium that results in?
a. vertigo
b. cupula
c. kinocilium
d. stereocilia

7. Which of the following sensory modalities is transmitted directly to the cerebral cortex without being relayed through the thalamus?
a. taste
b. sight
c. smell
d. hearing
e. touch

8.The specialized epithelial cells of the taste bud are known as
a. Astrocytes
b. Red Blood Cells
c. Schawn Cells
d. Taste Cells
e. Water

9. Which of these sensory receptors are the pain receptors
a. chemoreceptor
b. photoreceptors
c. nociceptors
d. thermoreceptors

10.Parts of your tongue can only respond to certain tastes.i.e. sweet, sour, salty, bitter, savory, and fat.
a. true
b. false

11. The organ of hearing in the inner ear where nerve impulses are generated in response to sounds waves is the:
a. Semicircular canals
b. Cochlea
c. Utricle
d. Saccule
e. the lobe

12. Messissners corpussles are..
a. Bundles nerve endings
b. Sensitive to light touch
c. Phasic
d. All of the above

13. Pacinian Corpussles are..
a. sensitive to light touch
b. Sustain pressure
c. a different word for messiners corpusles.
d. phasic

14. What cells of the eyes perceive color?
a. cones
b. rods
c. cornea
d. iris

15. What area of the eye regulates the amount of light that gets in?
a. central fovea
b. pupil
c. iris
d. macula

16. Smell involves molecules in the air dissolving in nasal mucus and directly stimulating neurons.
a. true
b. false

17. What two cells are involved in perception of color and or black and white?
a. Central fovea, Larynx
b. ganglia, cone
c. rod, cone
d. cornea, ciliary body

18. What is the macula?
a. The white around the eye
b. The primary area for vision
c. A muscle that helps move the eye
d. A tear duct

Homeostasis Lab

flattail — Fri, 18 Jul 2008 11:47:41 CDT

There is no abstract available for this page revision.

Lecture Recordings

flattail — Mon, 07 Jul 2008 15:32:05 CDT

Lectures for Test 5 (kidneys NOT on test 4)

Chapter 17: Kidney Physiology

Part One: Introduction, structures, functions Audio only worked for 15 minutes. Sorry!
Part Two: Urine formation

Lectures for Test 4

Chapter 16: Respiratory System (prerecorded)

I decided to only give you a Part One because I'm a flake and cannot think straight, plus you deserve a break too.
Part one: everything you need to know about the respiratory system

Chapter 15: Immune System (prerecorded)

sorry, but my total talking time went beyond 2 hours. I'll try to be brief with respiratory system as compensation.
Part one: nonspecific immunity
Part two: more nonspecific immunity, plus specific immunity

Day 12, Chapter 14: Heart stuff

A couple of things: For Part 1 there are NO SLIDES to look at while I talk. Sorry about that. You can open the pdf file attached at the bottom of this page and follow along. Also, Ch 13 was covered in more depth than Ch 14, and both were a bit disorganized. My apologies.
Part One: Hemophilia, rH factor, shock, etc. (see bottom of page for slides)
Part Two: Heart conduction, blood pressure, ECG

Day 11, Chapter 13: Blood, Heart, Circulation

Note: This WAS going to be on Test 3, but we decided to move it to Test 4. Test 3 will "only" include senses, endocrine system, and muscles.
Part one: introduction to blood, blood cells, role of blood, etc.
Part two: carrying gases, capillaries, clotting

Lectures for Test 3

Day 10, Chapter 12: Muscle

Introduction, anatomy of muscle cells
Neuromuscular junction, Sliding filament theory

Day 9, Chapter 11: Endocrine

Introduction to endocrine system. Chemical classes of hormones.
Discussion of specific hormones and their actions

Day 8, Chapter 10: Sense

Introduction to sense; cutaneous receptors
A disorganized look at taste, smell, equilibrium, hearing, and sight

Lectures for Test 2

Day 7, Chapter 9: The Autonomic Nervous System

Introduction, organization, neurotransmitters
Part 2: the disorganized stuff

Day 6, Chapter 7: The Nervous System: Neurons and Synapses

Introduction, neurons, glial cells, synapses
Generating and propogating a membrane potential

Day 5, Chapter 6: Interactions Between Cells and the Extracellular Environment

The recording did not work (at all)! I tried posting the slides as a pdf and learned the attachment must be no bigger than 1 MB. So, I tried dividing it into thirds, but it was still a bit too big! So, I eliminated some slides and used settings to minimize file size. It should look okay on screen, but won't print well. Anyway, the slides ARE available at the BOTTOM of this page as an attachment.

Day 4, Chapter 5: Cell Respiration and Metabolism

Introduction and Glycolysis
Krebs Cycle and Electron Transport Chain
Lectures for Test 1

Day 1, Chapter 1 Homeostasis

Class introduction, explanation of assignments
Homeostasis (we didn't make it through the whole chapter)

Day 2, Chapter 3 Cell Structure and Genetic Control

Cell structure and function
Genetic regulation

Day 3, Chapter 4 Enzymes and Energy

Introduction to enzymes
Enzymes Part 2

The PhysiWiki Page - Recently Updated Pages

Study of Body Function

Chapter Objectives

Introduction to Physiology

Cell Structure and Genetic Control Q&A

Cell Structure and Genetic Control

Enzymes & Energy Q&A

Enzymes and Energy

Enzymes and Energy

Chapter Objectives

Enzymes as Catalysts

Checklist of Enzyme Characteristics

What is a Catalyst?

Energy of Activation

Control of Enzyme Activity

Binding site on reactant (substrate) where enzymes binds.

A cell can control the activity of an enzyme by altering it's shape. Allosteric enzymes have shapes that can be altered, but the binding signal molecules.These molecules bind to the alloster site. Repressors bind and repress enzyme activity. Activators bind and restore or increase enzyme activity.

Anabolic=endergonic

Catabolic-degradation

Bioenergetics

Review Questions

Cell Structure and Genetic Control

Units Within the Metric System The metric system is the most widely used system of measurement in the world. It is a more universal measurement standard as compared to the customary system used in the United States. The three basic units of the metric system are the meter, gram, and liter:

The gram measures weight.The meter measures length.The liter measures capacity.

Drill and Practice

Write the equivalents.

1) 18 m =_____ cm2) 167 mm =_____mm3) 500 kg = _____g4) 23 dm =_____hm5) 1,589 dl =_____dm6) 700 ml =_____kl7) 5 cm = _____mm

Phospholipids

Proteins in the cell membrane

Carbohydrates

Cholesterol

Review Questions

Test 1 Chapters

Study of Body Funcitons Q&A

The Study of Body Function

Physiology in the News

Chapter 7

Chapter Objectives

The Nervous System: Neurons and Synapses

Chapter 10: Sense

Sensory Physiology

Chapter Objectives

What are senses?

Dark Adaptation

Homeostasis Lab

Lecture Recordings

Chapter 20: Reproduction

Chapter 19: Regulation of Metabolism

Chapter 18: Digestion

Chapter 17: Kidney Physiology

Chapter 16: Respiratory System (prerecorded)

Chapter 15: Immune System (prerecorded)

Day 12, Chapter 14: Heart stuff

Day 11, Chapter 13: Blood, Heart, Circulation

Day 10, Chapter 12: Muscle

Day 9, Chapter 11: Endocrine

Day 8, Chapter 10: Sense

Day 7, Chapter 9: The Autonomic Nervous System

Day 6, Chapter 7: The Nervous System: Neurons and Synapses

Day 5, Chapter 6: Interactions Between Cells and the Extracellular Environment

Day 4, Chapter 5: Cell Respiration and Metabolism

Day 1, Chapter 1 Homeostasis

Day 2, Chapter 3 Cell Structure and Genetic Control

Day 3, Chapter 4 Enzymes and Energy

Units Within the Metric System

The metric system is the most widely used system of measurement in the world. It is a more universal measurement standard as compared to the customary system used in the United States.
The three basic units of the metric system are the meter, gram, and liter:

1) 18 m =___ cm
2) 167 mm =_mm
3) 500 kg = _g
4) 23 dm =_hm
5) 1,589 dl =_dm
6) 700 ml =_kl
7) 5 cm = ___mm